Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology

Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology is the first research methods textbook that is specific to the field of audiology and designed to serve as an academic textbook for audiology graduate students. This text can also be accessible for audiology practitioners who are interested in clinical and applied research. The comprehensive coverage includes materials for multiple courses within audiology degree programs, including research methods, analysis of professional literature, evidence-based practice, and capstone research projects.

Classroom tested, and written by authors who have extensive backgrounds in publishing and editing, this text provides knowledge that is required in evaluating, conducting, and disseminating research. The book is separated into three sections: (a) research methods; (b) evidence-based practice; and (c) conducting and disseminating research. Together, these sections provide a detailed coverage of the research methods that are relevant to conducting research, particularly in the field of Audiology. 

Key Features

• Learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter
• End of chapter reviews including key points and study questions
• Audiology-specific examples, research methods, and study designs
• “Golden Nugget” boxes throughout the book containing valuable information related to the critical concepts 
• In-depth discussion of qualitative research methods, survey research methods, and systematic reviews to motivate students and early career researchers to consider these methodologies in their research
• Access to a PluralPlus companion website with PowerPoint lecture slides for instructors and study questions and related readings for students

From the Forewords:

"...What a pleasure to support these internationally acclaimed authors (each of whom is a researcher, clinician, and educator) in sharing their wealth of knowledge about how to close the gap between clinical research and clinical practice. ...If audiology is to thrive and grow into the future as a successful member of the health care professions, its clinical practices must develop a more research-based proof of efficacy. We need the kind of systematic, quantitative approach to pressing clinical issues so effectively detailed in this important volume."
—Susan Jerger, PhD
Ashbel Smith Professor Emerita School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences University of Texas at Dallas
—James Jerger, PhD
Distinguished Scholar-in-Residence School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences University of Texas at Dallas

"Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology is authored by Vinjaya Manchaiah, Eldré Beukes, and Ross J. Roeser, who are all clinicians, educators, and researchers. This text is an attempt to address the lack of evidence within our discipline, encourage critical evaluation of published studies, and develop good research practice. The authors are an established team, having collaborated on many research projects.
The chapters guide the reader through all the steps of the research process: critical synthesis of existing literature, identifying gaps-in knowledge that are clinically relevant, formulating a carefully crafted research question, identifying both the ingredients and the recipe to follow in order to answer the question, followed by data collection, analysis, and interpretation. ...There are ample opportunities for students and hearing health professionals to benefit from this textbook. The chapters on systematic reviews and evidence-based practice are directly relevant to the approach taken by various organizations (e.g., The Campbell Collaboration, Cochrane, NICE, Johanna Briggs Institute) that promote evidence-based practice. If you want to critically evaluate research, there are chapters for you. If you want to conduct research that uses quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods or surveys, there are also chapters for you. Health care professionals, new and experienced, are well placed to propose research questions based on an urgent unmet need, collaborate on a research study, apply for a short research “taster” session, work as a research audiologist, or undertake research training with the aim of becoming an independent researcher. A research-active workforce will enhance the reputation of the profession, as well as improve the lives of people with hearing loss."
—Kevin J. Munro, PhD
Ewing Professor of Audiology, Director of the Manchester Centre for Audiology and Deafness, Deputy Director of the NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre
The University of Manchester, UK

Reviews

"The book, Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology, by Manchaiah, Beukes, and Roesner provides a refreshing and timeless overview of research in audiology. It delivers a review for a clinical audiologist in the methods used to conduct research, how one should effectively read and synthesize research, as well as methods for applying the research to daily clinical practice. The authors hold true to clinical practices and application of research to answer every-day clinical questions. This is a book that will be recommended for all of our AuD students for applying research to practice throughout their career. This text provides a comprehensive overview of research methods and methods of examination for didactic courses as well as applications into clinic. The book also provides insight for researchers into clinical practice.  There is something for the seasoned researcher and the newly engaged researcher. It provides insight into clinical practice for those who have not practiced or a reminder of daily practice for those who are not currently engaged in clinical practice. Additionally, for the researcher, this text can provide research generating ideas and unique methods for answering audiology related questions. This book truly has something for both the research and clinician interested in research."
—Lindsey E. Jorgensen, PhD
Associate Professor, University of South Dakota
Research Audiologist, Sioux Falls VA Medical Center

“As the only textbook available on research methods in audiology, this book seems likely to be rapidly added to reading lists for undergraduate students. […] It is written not only for students and prospective researchers, but also clinicians keen to improve their ability to critically evaluate the evidence available to improve their decision-making. […]
The frequent ‘golden nugget’ sections – short summaries of key points in highlighted boxes – are helpful throughout.
The early chapters guide researches through the planning process, particularly highlighting the importance of time management and obtaining an appropriately representative same of participants. The section on quantitative data analysis gives a helpful overview of basic statistics for audiologists and directs readers towards additional reading via references, both within the text and the online supplementary materials. It is good to see a textbook providing detailed information on qualitative research and questionnaire development in audiology, areas that clinicians can undervalue. The chapters on evidence-based practice are particularly useful for those interested in critically evaluating research, outlining different types of literature review, with a focus on the highest quality systematic reviews and meta-analyses. The final section on disseminating research findings offers helpful and practical advice on presenting and publishing study outcomes, useful both to students and practicing clinicians.
A well-structured, comprehensive introduction to a topic that will be of benefit to anyone interested in evidence-based advancement of professional practice in audiology.”
—Helen Brough, St. George’s University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, in Audiology – Adult, Adiology – Diagnostic, Audiology – Paediatric, Auditory Implants (September 30) 

“'Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology' is the first comprehensive, audiology specific textbook to detail the entire research process from design to dissemination. Written by experienced researchers and clinicians, it is a textbook that melds research theory with 
clinical foundation. 
[…] The book is split into three sections: Research Methods in Audiology, Evidence-Based Practice, and Conducting and Disseminating Research. […] Refreshingly, the Research Methods section begins with a philosophical contextualisation of research methodology and places qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method research side-by-side, demonstrating their respective roles and importance in audiological research. […] The statistical analysis chapter provides a good overview to help with understanding various statistical tests and provides links to some online resources for more detailed explanation on incorporating these into one’s own research. There is also a chapter on survey research, which is a commonly used research method that can easily fall prey to pitfalls and poor structure which can invalidate results. 
The second section […] sets out the stages of evidence-based practice and how to evaluate the quality of knowledge in the evidence-based hierarchy. […]
This book is an excellent consolidation of research methods that is useful and accessible to anyone in audiology, from students to clinicians to researchers at all stages of their careers.”
–Lauren Story in Audiology Australia (December 2021)

Foreword by Susan Jerger, PhD, and James Jerger, PhD
Foreword by Kevin J. Munro, PhD
Preface
Acknowledgements
Reviewers
About the Authors

Section A: Research Methods in Audiology

Chapter 1. The Research Process
Learning Outcomes
The Role of Research within Audiology
Defining Research

Usual Practice
Service Evaluation
Clinical Audit

Overview of the Research Process

Stage 1:  Conceiving the Study

Reviewing the Existing Literature  
Developing the Scope and Aim of the Study
Identifying and Formulating Research Questions
Creating Hypotheses

Stage 2: Designing the Study

Research Variables 
Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research 
Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Research Methodologies
Research Compliance 

Stage 3: Data Collection

Data Collection Format
Type and Amount of Data Collected
Data Collection Setting
Data Management 

Stage 4: Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions

Inspecting the Data for Errors
Statistical Analysis
Drawing Conclusions 

Stage 5: Dissemination
Translating Research into Clinical Practice
The Research Proposal 

The Research Team
Feasibility of Research Project

Outlining the Resources Required 
Planning the Time Scale

Considerations for Recruiting and Maintaining Participants
Preregistration of Studies

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 2. Research Compliance
Learning Outcomes
Research Compliance
Ethical Considerations for Human and Animal Research

Ethical Codes 

The Nuremberg Code
The Declaration of Helsinki 
The Belmont Report

Ethical Principles

Good Clinical Practice
Research Principles Outlined by Professional Associations

Data Protection 

Confidentiality and Privacy
The European General Data Protection Act (GDPR)
The United States Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

Research with Vulnerable Groups
Informed Consent

Ways of Providing the Necessary Informed Consent
Capacity to Consent

Research Involving Animals

The Ethical Application Process

Applying for Ethical Approval

Ethical Application in Settings with Ethical Review Boards
Ethical Applications in Independent Settings
Research Ethics for International Research

Research Integrity

Research Fudging
Conflict of Interest
Credit for Intellectual Effort

Types of Copyright License 

Active Partnerships to Increase Research Quality and Compliance

Patient and Public Involvement in Research
Reporting PPI Involvement in Academic Publications

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 3. Research Methods
Learning Outcomes
Defining Scientific Methods
Scientific Theory, Law, and Models

Scientific Theory
Scientific Law
Scientific Model

History and Philosophy of Science

History of Science
Philosophy of Science

Naïve Realism
Antirealism
Critical Realism 

Role of Theory in Research

Deductive Versus Inductive Inference

Research Hierarchy: Methodology, Method, and Design
Types of Research

Empirical Versus Nonempirical Research 
Basic Versus Applied Research 
Animal Versus Human Research 
Descriptive Versus Analytical Research 
Exploratory Versus Confirmatory Research 

Feasibility Versus Pilot Studies

Prospective Versus Retrospective Research 
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research 
Observational Versus Experimental Research 
Laboratory Versus Field Research 
Cross-sectional Versus Longitudinal Research 
Common Ways of Categorizing Research Studies

Research Methodology 

Quantitative Research 

Variable

Qualitative Research
Difference and Opinion Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods Research 

Common Research Strategies Used in Audiology 
Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 4. Research Design
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Design
Repeated Cross-sectional Design
Cohort Design
Case-Control Design
Experimental Design

Pre-, Quasi-, and True Experimental Designs 
A Randomized Controlled Trial
Parallel-Group Versus Crossover Experimental Designs 
Treatment Efficacy and Effectiveness Trials

Considerations When Choosing Research Designs
Criteria for Quality in Quantitative Research

Validity
Reliability
Generalizability

Evaluating Clinical Research

Quality Analysis of Studies and Level of Evidence 
Nature of Clinical Data
Clinical Practice Guidelines

Rigor and Reproducibility in Scientific Research

The Reproducibility Crisis in Research
Best Evidence versus Best Available Evidence 
Minimizing Bias in Research 

Key Points 
Review Questions
References

Chapter 5. Variables, Sampling and Sample Size
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Variables in Empirical Research

Types of Variables

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Extraneous Variable
Confounding Variable
Demographic Variable
Environmental Variable

Examples of Different Variables in a Study
Variables During Data Collection and Analysis
Levels of Measurement

Populations and Samples

Parameters Versus Statistics
Sample Characteristics

Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling 
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling 

Nonprobability Sampling

Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Consecutive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Self-Selection Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Theoretical Sampling

Challenges in Implementing Probability Sampling Methods

Sampling Bias

Sample Size

Sampling Error
Power Analysis

Sample Size Estimation
Post Hoc Power Analysis

Challenges in Recruiting Study Participants 

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 6. Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
An Overview of Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data
Preparing Data for Analysis 

Error Checking and Outliers
Missing Data

Describing the Data

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean
Median
Mode

Measures of Variability

Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
z& Scores
Standard Error
Quartiles

Describing the Distribution

Normal Distribution
Skewness and Kurtosis 
Central Limit Theorem
Data Transformation

Selecting Appropriate Statistical Tests

Assumptions Required for Parametric Testing

Assumptions of Normality
Homogeneity of Variance

Considerations When Using Parametric Statistics
Considerations When Using Non-Parametric Statistics

Quantitative Data Analysis 

Hypothesis Testing 

Specifying the Hypotheses
Probability Values (p value)
One- or Two-Tailed Tests
Degrees of Freedom

Alternative or Complementary Approaches to Significance Testing

Effect Size Calculations
Confidence Interval and Margin of Error
Clinical Significance 
Bayesian Analysis

Testing Differences Between Two Means 

t Test
Types of t Tests

Comparing Groups 

Analysis of Variance
Main Effects and Interaction Effects
Types of Analysis of Variance
Analysis of Covariance
Post Hoc Testing 

Examining Relationships Between Variables

Correlation Analysis
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient 

Predicting and Assessing the Strength of the Relationship Between Variables 

Regression Analysis
Nonparametric Regression Models

Grouping Variables 

Factor Analysis 
Cluster Analysis 

Analyzing the Performance of Diagnostic Tests 

Reporting Statistical Test Results

Reporting the Outcome of Statistical Analysis 
Visual Representation of the Data
Common Pitfalls When Conducting and Reporting Statistics

Interpreting Statistical Findings
Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 7. Qualitative Research Methods
Learning Outcomes
Scope and Context of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research Traditions

Grounded Theory
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Action Research
Narrative Research
Case Study

Sampling and Recruiting Participants

Sampling Methods

Convenience Sampling 
Snowball Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Maximum Variation Sampling
Theoretical Sampling

Determining Sampling Method
Sampling Adequacy
Other Considerations when Recruiting Participants 

Data Collection Methods and Settings

Data Collection Methods

Interviews
Focus Groups
Questionnaires
Observations
Document Analysis

Employing Multiple Data Collection Methods
Data Collection Settings
Checking Accuracy

Data Analysis Methods

Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
Data Analysis Steps

Transcribing Data
Becoming Familiar With the Data
Data Organization
Generating Codes
Data Interpretation and Pattern Identification
Tying Field Data to Research Objective(s) and Drawing Verifiable Conclusions 

Common Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive Analysis
Content Analysis
Thematic Analysis
Constant Comparative Method
Conversation Analysis
Discourse Analysis
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

Data Saturation and Trustworthiness 
Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software Programs

Role of a Researcher

Emic or Etic Research Perspectives
Theoretical Orientation and Methodological Choices
Training and Experience
Disciplined Subjectivity
Safeguarding Participant  Anonymity
Acknowledging the Role of a Researcher

Reporting Qualitative Research

Thick Description of the Data
Interpretive Themes
Anonymity of Participants
Visual Presentation of the Data

Scientific Rigor in Qualitative Research

Reflexivity
Validity
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability and Audit Trail
Transferability

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 8. Mixed-Methods Research
Learning Outcomes
Introduction
Overview of Mixed-Methods Research

Characteristics of Mixed-Methods Research
Comparing Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed-Methods Research
Advantages and Challenges of Mixed-Methods Research

Conducting Mixed-Methods Research

Identifying the Rationale for Mixed-Methods Research
Selecting the Study Design Within Mixed-Methods Research

Identifying the Sampling Strategy

Data Collection
Data Analysis
Data Interferences

Examples of Mixed-Methods Studies in Audiology

Big Data Research Using Mixed Methods
Evaluating Mixed-Methods Research

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 9. Survey Research 
Learning Outcomes
Defining Survey Research
Advantages and Limitations of Survey Research 
Purposes of Surveys

Gathering Opinions, Beliefs, and Feelings
Diagnostic Measure
Outcome Measure
Epidemiological Studies
Multipurpose Surveys

Study Designs in Survey Research

Cross-Sectional Surveys
Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys
Panel Surveys
Survey Experiments

Sampling and Participant Recruitment

Sampling Methods
Sample Size Adequacy 

Response Rate

Data Collection Methods

Types of Surveys 

Questionnaires
Interviews 
Mixed Mode Surveys

Survey Administration Methods

Written Survey
Oral Survey
Paper and Pencil Versus Electronic Survey
First-Hand Versus Third-Party Administration

Types of Questions

Open-Ended Questions
Closed-Ended Questions
Mixture of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions

Response Options

Rating Versus Ranking
Open-Response Formats
Dichotomous Responses
Likert Response Scales
Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)

Missing Data and Erroneous Data
The Importance of Anonymity

Considerations for Designing, Adapting, Validating, or Choosing a Questionnaire

Designing a Questionnaire

Conceptual Clarity
Comprehensibility
Wording of Questions
Response Formats and Scoring
Question Sequence
Administration Format
Keep Analysis in Mind
Checking Survey Quality
Pretesting

Translation and Adaptation of Questionnaires
Validating a Questionnaire

Validity
Reliability
Responsiveness
Interpretability 
Floor and Ceiling Effect
Choosing a Questionnaire

Core Outcome Set (COS)

Approaches to Survey Data Analyses

Preparing Data for the Analysis

Types of Data
Data Structure

Choosing a Data Analysis Method

Analysis of Likert Scale Responses

Data Interpretation

Describing Phenomenon
Correlation Versus Causality
Reported Behavior Versus Actual Behavior
Adequacy of Psychometric Properties

Sources of Bias in Survey Research
Key Points
Review Questions
References

Section B. Evidence-Based Practice

Chapter 10. Evidence-Based Practice
Learning Outcomes
Health-Care Decision Making 
Types of Knowledge

Traditional Knowledge
Authority Knowledge
Personal Knowledge
Trial and Error Knowledge
Research-Based Knowledge
Hierarchy of Knowledge Types

Evidence-Based Practice

A Brief History of Evidence-Based Practice
Definitions
Benefits and Risks of Evidence-Based Practice
Evidence-Based Practice Steps

Step 1 – Developing and Defining Clinical Questions
Step 2 – Search for the Best Available Research Evidence
Step 3 –Synthesize the Evidence
Step 4 – Implement the Evidence
Step 5 – Evaluate the Outcomes

Implementation Issues for Evidence-Based Practice in Clinical Practice

Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs)
Acceptance and Adherence Issues
Examples of Challenges for Evidence-Based Practice Implementation

Example 1 – Lack of Organizational Support
Example 2 – Health-Care Service Reimbursement
Example 3 – Overabundance of Available Evidence 
Example 4 – Misuse of the Non-Peer-Reviewed Evidence

Common Myths and Misconceptions about Evidence-Based Practice 
Evaluating Research for Evidence-Based Practice
The Future of Evidence-Based Practice
Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 11. Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis
Learning Outcomes
Research Reviews in Clinical Practice
Types of Reviews

Narrative (or Descriptive) Review
Scoping Review
Systematic Review
Review of Reviews

Systematic Review Process 

Requirements for a Systematic Review
Identifying a Research Area
Establishing the Rationale for Reviews
Formulating Research Questions
Searching and Appraising Previous Reviews

Critical Appraisal Skills Program Checklist for Systematic Reviews
Assessing Methodological Quality of Systematic Review
Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Systematic Reviews

Scoping Search
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Review Registration
Developing the Search Strategy

Information Sources
Keyword Selection

Performing the Search and Selecting Appropriate Papers
Referencing Management
Data Extraction
Outcomes and Prioritization
Biases Quality Assessment

Assessment of Methodological Quality
Assessment of Risk of Bias
Determining Level of Evidence

Data Synthesis

Descriptive Synthesis
Narrative Synthesis
Thematic Synthesis
Quantitative Synthesis (Meta-Analysis)

Reporting the Review Outcomes

Performing a Meta-Analysis

Use of Software in Meta-Analysis
Criteria for Performing a Quantitative Synthesis
Assessing Appropriateness of Doing a Meta-Analysis

Principle 1: Power Analysis
Principle 2: Examination of Confidence Interval Width
Principle 3: Assessment of Heterogeneity

Publication Bias
Summary Measures

Statistical Models
Odds or Risk Ratios
Estimating Effect Sizes

Standardization and Weighting Studies
Subgroup Analysis
Sensitivity Analysis
Metaregression

Reporting Guidelines for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis
Key Points
Review Questions
References

Section C. Conducting and Disseminating Research

Chapter 12. Student-Led Research Projects
Learning Outcomes
Importance of Student-Led Research Projects
Benefits of Student-Lead Research
Elements of Student-Led Research

Selecting the Topic
Selecting a Mentor and Committee Members
Conducting a Literature Review

Access to Full-Text
Inter-Library Loan

Developing the Research Proposal

Identifying the Scope of the Research
Defining the Research Questions 
Writing the Research Proposal 

Gaining the Necessary Approvals
Involving Service Users in Research
Gathering the Research Data
Data Analysis and Drawing Appropriate Conclusions
Writing and Reporting the Research Findings

Effective Planning of the Research

Creating a Realistic Research Plan 
Dealing with Ongoing Challenges
Time Management 

Disseminating the Research Outcomes

Examples of Published Student-Led Projects in Audiology

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Chapter 13. Disseminating Research Findings
Learning Outcomes
Importance of Scientific Findings—Dissemination
Planning Dissemination of Scientific Findings
Presenting Research Findings at Professional Conferences
Scientific Publications

Scientific Truth
Peer-Reviewed Publications

Predatory “Peer-Reviewed” Publications
Publishing Negative Results

Non-Peer-Reviewed Publications
Important Considerations When Choosing the Journal

Scope of the Journal
Target Audience
Manuscript Types and Word Limits
Impact Factor
Conflict of Interest
Copyright Assignment
Open Access
Publication Charges

Tips for Successful Publishing

Invest Enough Time in the Process
Choose the Most Appropriate Journal
Follow the Journal Submission Guidelines
Use Standard Guidelines for Scientific Reporting
Importance of the Cover Letter 
Components of the Manuscript
More on the Abstract
Referencing
Professional Copy Editing
Authorship Order and Honorary Authorship
Addressing Reviewers’ Concerns

Strategies to Enhance Reach and Impact of Research
Reviewing Others' Research Work

Benefits of Peer Reviewing Others Work
How to Conduct Peer Review of Scientific Work 

Key Points
Review Questions
References

Index

Evaluating and Conducting Research in Audiology comes with access to supplementary student and instructor materials on a PluralPlus companion website.

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